The theories of Karl Marx and Max Weber

The theories of Karl Marx and Max Weber It was the belief of Karl Marx that social class plays an integral role in society. It was his theory that social class is important to understanding capitalism and other social systems. He asserted that the history of all hitherto existing in society is the history of class struggles (Marx 1848). Marx theorised social classes are defined by the relationship between capitalists and their workforce. For Marx economics is the driving force of modern society and social class. It is the view of Marx that in the past although society did have strata, such stratum was based on titles and occupation rather than purely economics. The bourgeoisie and the proletariat are the main social classes that Marx purposes. The Bourgeoisie are the capitalists. They purchase and exploit the labour power. Marx notes that someone who merely owns capital cannot be sufficiently defined as a capitalist. It is the means of using capital as a means to exploit labour which characterises the capitalist. The proletariat are the labour force. They work in order to earn income for themselves and their families in order to survive. Marx purposes that the existing relationship between bourgeoisie and the proletariat is an exploitive relationship which is based on inequality. Webers definition of class is not unlike that given by Marx. Weber defines class as a category of people who, have in common a specific causal component of their life chances in à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ this component is represented exclusively by economic interests in the possession of goods and opportunities for income, and it is represented under the conditions of the commodity or labor market. Webber held a view close to Marxs that class position does not necessarily lead to class-determined economic or political action. Weber argued that communal class action surface after connections between the causes and the consequences of the class situation become apparent. Marx however proposes it is when a class becomes conscious of its interests, that is, of its relation, as a class, to other classes. In modern day Britain there is evidence that class inequality present in society. Wide disparities in health between the classes illustrate this fact. However it should be noted that inequalities in health based on class is not a new sociological occurrence. Chadwick took note of a disproportionate difference in life expectancy between the classes in 1842. Gentlemen and persons engaged in professions and their familiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦45 years; tradesmen and their familiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦26 years; Mechanics, servants and labourers, and their families à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 16 years (Chadwick 1842). Reports have been carried out that suggest an obvious link between social class and health. Such studies find that lower social class groups have a higher chance of illness and a sorter light expectancy. At the start of the 21st century, all European countries are faced with substantial inequalities in health within their populations. People with a lower level of education, a lower occupational class, or a lower level of income tend to die at a younger age, and tend to have a higher prevalence of most types of health problems. (Mackenbach 2006) The Acheson Report took a systematic review of research of health inequalities in the UK. The report found that overall the mortality rate for people aged 35 -64 years had fallen in the period studied; however there was an increased variation in mortality between the classes. The Acheson report also uncovered that within particular areas of the UK the inequalities in Health between the classes manifest its self greater. In Scotland for example, male life expectancy in the 10 percent most deprived areas is 13 years lower than in the 10 percent least deprived areas. Such difference between the classes is increasing; the life expectancy gap between the best and worst constituencies was 7.8 years in 1991. In 2001 this gap had risen to 13.7 year (Scottish Government 2007). Mackenbach noted in mortality in patterns that: Rates of mortality are consistently higher among those with a lower, than among those with a higher socio-economic position. Not only is the size of these inequalities often substantial, but inequalities in mortality have also increased in many European countries in the past decades. (Mackenbach 2006) It is proposed by Mackenbach that inequalities in mortality; start early in life and persist in to old age, affect both men and women but its influence is more prevalent in men and are found for most but not all specific causes of death. The Acheson report presented that in terms of enduring illness has strong link to socioeconomic differences. It was reported that in 1996 the 45-64 years age group, 17 percent of professional men reported a limited long standing illness compared with 48 percent of unskilled men. The Acheson Reported that among women, 25 percent of professional women and 45 percent of unskilled women report long standing illnesses. Mackenbach articulates that people with lower socio-economic positions not only live shorter lives nit also but spend a larger number of years in ill health. Why does that pattern of health inequality exist in modern society? The influential Black Report 1980 examined five explanations of health inequalities. These five explanations are; the artefact explanation, the social explanation, social selection exploitation, the cultural explanation and the social deprivation explanation. An artefact approach to understanding Health inequality suggests that such health disparities are statistical fiction. Critics debate what is the best way measuring such it is also argued by Bury (1997) suggests that comparing the bottom social class (V) is not longer effective as the number of people in this class has declined greatly. The social selection theory argues that good or bad health determines class position rather than vice versa. For example, having a long term health issue may limit a persons career opportunities. Critics counter this theory that although illness plays a role on life chances it not always the case that illness leads to downward social mobility. The explanation is also contrary to a Marxist thought. Marx would argue it is class that determines health. A cultural explanation of health inequalities suggests that the social classes behave in different ways. The less well of social classes are more likely to have poorer health because of diet, smoking or alcohol consumption. Shilling (1993) proposes that different social classes view their bodies in different ways. Shilling asserts that the lower social classes tend to see the body in terms of what it enables them to do, for example for work and looking after children. According to Shilling health is not considered an issue until problems arise for the lower classes until the body cannot function normally. Higher social classes treat the body as an end in its self and have higher focus on preventing illness from occurring. Such an explanation for Health inequalities in contemporary Britain based on social class harmonises with the theories of Marx and Weber. The explanation the lower classes (the proletariat) regard their bodies as a machine used for means of work is compatible with t he sociological assertions of Marx and Weber. Marx would say such a view of the body is a result of class struggle. The proletariat must view their body as machine for work. Marx submits that proletariat must work in order to survive. This is why for the lower class health only becomes an issue when they are unable to work because of illness. Is also argues the material situation of a person and the conditions that they live and work in conditions which they work and live is an important factor in determining their health. Issues such as poverty, employments, housing and access to care are influential factors to be considered. The Acheson report in order to address the issues involved adopted a socioeconomic model of health and inequalities, combining the above theories. The socioeconomic model however does go as far to address a connection between its different layers. The Black Report reported a growth of health inequalities across Britain. These widening inequalities in health have been observed, in socio-economic terms. However findings demonstrated that overall health had improved since the creation of the welfare state. Although the standard of health has increased in equilibrium with an improvement in standard in living it is conclusive that inequalities in health based on class still exist in Britain. Marx would note the improvement of living standards for proletariat but would note the of Bourgeoisie exploiting the work of the proletariat to create excess capital. It is conclusive from the findings of the Black Report and Acheson that need for Marxs proletariat to work is what constructs their attitude towards health. In contemporary Britain there have been improvements made in health over all but class in equalities have not been reduced.

Examine different ways in which ‘good’ is used in Meta Ethics Essay

In the modern degrading society we live in today, people are constantly questioning the highly debatable topic of morals. We would like to think that we are trying our hardest to strive to do what is right in society to make us decent people. However it is hard to do what is ‘good’ when there are so many different ways of defining the meaning of good itself. There are three main types of ethics, Descriptive, Prescriptive and Meta ethics. Descriptive ethics presents the facts in the way people live and how they make moral choices in life. It simply states the facts without making any moral judgement of ‘good’ or ‘bad’. Prescriptive ethics states the norm about what is right or wrong by examining the choices and the reasons behind the issues. It says how we should live or behave setting standards for everyone to live by. This is the most widely used form of ethical language when debating morality. Meta ethics is a philosophical analysis of different words used in ethical language. It closely examines the words themselves and their exact meaning in different contexts. The subject of Meta ethics is to intimately study the moral language to be able to reach a better understanding of its meaning. Without the knowledge and intense understanding of the language we use in moral debates, we cannot argue our points successfully or be able to come to any logical conclusion. Therefore it is vitally necessary that we determine the meaning of the words we use so we can successfully take part in these ethical discussions. The most important ethical term, which unfortunately is so loosely used in society, is the term ‘good’. We frequently hear of a concert being ‘good’ or that person is a ‘good’ person or it is ‘good’ to be peaceful. But when we so casually use the term ‘good’ do we actually know what we are implying? What does the term ‘good’ mean in itself? Surely we should all be able to instantly provide an answer to this question because we all use the term ‘good’ on a regular basis. However we find that when posed with this question, many are not sure themselves of the core meaning of the word. In this essay I shall be examining the intensity of the ethical term ‘good’ and what people mean when they determine something to be ‘good’ of ‘bad’. We need to decide in fact, if it is actually possible to define the word ‘good’ at all or does it depend totally on the situation, having a slightly different meaning in every different context. The meaning of the term ‘good’ is not necessarily something that we all naturally agree on. There are many factors that affect the reasons why we perceive the meaning of ‘good’ to be what it is. Some examples of this include the sources of our values and morals, how we are brought up and the way our conscience plays a part in our every day lives. Naturally everyone may see different situations to be different degrees of ‘good’ or ‘bad’ in their opinion. A key concept leading to the understanding of something being ‘good’ is Definism. This idea is that we need to define accurately what we mean by the term ‘good’ before we can specifically distinguish if something is good or bad. Once we have classified the meaning of ‘good’ we can then accordingly judge every situation or act against it. When we have identified the essence of the term in itself we can grasp the ideas and understandings behind it. However many ask, † can the term ‘good’ universally be defined?† We shall now look at the different ways society tries to identify the word ‘good’. There are two main ways of defining a moral act, these being absolute and relative terms. Absolute moral terms are when something is perceived as always being ‘good’ or ‘right’ regardless of the situation or the facts involved. This is also known as an objective term, it is completely independent of all conditions to determine its moral ‘goodness’. All absolute moral terms are known universally as always being correct regardless. For example, many argue that Peace will always be ‘good’ along with happiness. These terms should apply to everyone in society in every situation because they will always be right and striving to reach them can never be wrong. Relative terms are the direct opposite of absolute terms. When something is relative, it totally depends on the specific situation it is in. It is also dependent on people’s personal opinions. Everyone views situations in their own way, which is slightly different to everyone else. It all relies on what you believe it to be in your own individual opinion. The term ‘good’ therefore can only be determined in its particular context. This is also known as Subjectiveness, for example euthanasia or fighting for a cause you believe in are two examples of relative situations of doing a ‘good’ thing. There are several theories’ we can look at in which the term ‘good’ is used in Meta ethics. The first of these is the utilitarian theory of good. According to this theory, a term is determined as being good pending the results of a specific moral act. For example, if we were in the situation where we had to kill one person to save the lives of thousands of others then this would be seen as ‘good’. This is because although the sacrifice of one life is not ‘good’ in itself alone, because it saves the lives of many more it is seen as the greater ‘good’ because it is the lesser of two evils. The results of killing one person to save many are much greater than the act of killing one in the first place. The ‘evil’ of killing one is cancelled out by the ‘good’ of saving so many others. Therefore the utilitarian theory of good can be measured by what it achieves. Another important theory is that of Natural law. The term ‘good’ is used in this part of Meta ethics according to how well something fulfils its purpose. The key philosopher that brought this idea into ethical recognition was Aristotle in ancient Greece many years ago. He believed that everything existing has a natural purpose in life in which it is aiming towards as its ultimate goal. This means that the level of ‘goodness’ something is, is measured by how much a particular act contributes to the ultimate purpose the object has. If it helps to fulfil this purpose then it is a morally ‘good’ act, however if it makes it harder to fulfil its purpose then it is considered ‘bad’. This idea of Natural law lead on to the development of Christian theology, especially by the greatly admired philosopher St Thomas Aquinas who linked Aristotle’s ideas with Christianity. In religion, the term ‘good’ is related to what God would or wouldn’t approve of. If God saw a certain act as acceptable or if it fulfilled a command from him from a religious Holy Book then it would be seen as ‘good’. For example devoting time to worship him would be seen as ‘good’ but committing adultery would be seen as ‘bad’ in Gods eyes. The ultimate ‘good’ example in Christianity is Jesus whose life was seen to be morally ‘good’ because everything he did was approved of by God. He was perfect and therefore Christians today try to follow in his footsteps and do as he did. ‘Goodness’ is unlike any other quality and the ultimate aim for all living things according to many people. Something can therefore be determined as ‘good’ because it is unique, individual and supreme. We can detect this by the simple skill of human intuition because the ‘goodness’ is self-evident. This approach is known as Intuitionism or Ethical non-naturalism. Because it is a unique feature, it is very dependent on different situations or circumstances. The term ‘good’ will therefore have an individual meaning for different acts that will only apply to that one situation and could have a totally different meaning in another circumstance. We can also determine ‘good’ because intuition tells us the results it has are beneficial to others or ourselves. However, even though the consequences may benefit and be ‘good’, it is impossible to define the word from an intuitional point of view because it is always c hanging depending on the factors involved. G E Moore is the most famous example of an Intuitionist. He claimed the term ‘good’ was ‘incapable of definition because it is simple and has no parts.’ He believed too that the term had a different meaning that changed depending the circumstances or different situations the word is used. He likened this to a horse, they have many properties and qualities that make a horse a horse but if you ‘reduce a horse to its simplest terms, you can not define these terms.’ The phrase ‘good’ will have a certain meaning not only for different situations but also for different people. Many people can observe an act but they may disagree as to whether the act was good or not depending on their conscience and opinion. Intuitionism means it has a distinct meaning for you. G E Moore gave the example of the colour yellow, we cannot define a colour, we may be able to give examples of things that are yellow but to give an actual definition of yellow is quite impossible. He believed that we should judge the goodness of an action based on its results, aiming to maximise ‘good’ in the world. He was a strong intuitionist, which involved the belief that within us we have a â€Å"moral faculty† which reveals â€Å"moral truth† to us, showing us what was morally ‘good’. Another focal area of Meta ethics, which involves language, is Emotivism or ethical non-Cognitivism. Emotivism is sometimes viewed as merely the expression of feelings of the speaker. They can be seen more as commands or rules the speakers wants its audience to follow. These feelings are the opinions of the speaker saying what they believe to be right or wrong and are dependent on a matter of taste. The term ‘good’ is accordingly defined depending on what the speaker believes to be right. They state a moral preference of what they do or do not approve of and not the core meaning itself. The preferences of the speaker therefore, try to influence the opinions of the audience. They are not concerned with the moral statements themselves or their meaning but more focused on the purpose of the statement. The speaker indents on promoting a response from the audience relating to what is right or wrong. This theory is also known as the ‘Boo’ and ‘Hooray’ theory which can be seen as offensive because it is seen to reduce morality to simple cheers or boo’s. It is called this because when listening to a point of view, the audience simply shouts ‘hooray’ to say something is ‘good’ or that they approve of it or ‘boo’ if they disagree and think it is morally ‘bad’. However one problem with this theory is that in a modern society, we do not irrationally act merely on our feelings and emotions alone. We use logical thinking and reasoning too and this therefore must be included. Prescriptivism solved this problem by using reason to determine ‘goodness’. R M Hare who tried to examine what was actually happening when a person was making a moral statement took the best example of this approach. He tried to find out what was it meant to do and if moral statements had a purpose. This type of Meta ethics tries to prescribe a course of action that is recommended. . For example, the speaker may say ‘ To be considered a ‘good’ person, we should try our hardest to help those less fortunate than ourselves’. By saying this he is expressing what a good person is and also is suggesting a course of action we should take, i.e. helping others. As a result of this way of talking, the speaker is very opinionated and thus forcing an action as a result of his beliefs. The speaker is giving advice that applies to all situations at any given time regardless of other factors. It is Universable and therefore applies to all people in every situation. The theory of Universability is a general idea that can be applied to past, present and future and to all other people. In conclusion we can see that there are many different ways in which the term ‘good’ is used in Meta ethics. In Intuitionism it is used to describe moral principles that are self evidently right. In Emotivism, when we say something is ‘good’, it is what we see as being right according to out emotions and feelings. Prescriptivism on the other hand uses reason and logic to determine what is ‘good’. Utilitarianists perceive something to be ‘good’ pending the results that follow the action. How we determine what is ‘good’ or ‘bad’ to ourselves, greatly depends on which ethical view we take to situations as a result of our opinion. There is no one definition for what is ‘good’ and so it is down to us to decide which one we believe to be right and then try to live our lives accordingly.

The Effects Of Gun Control On Mental Health - 1231 Words

because many people believe that if there were no guns there would be no shooting. Several of the shootings were committed by an individual with severe mental health issues (Mcginty et al. 2014). There has been much debate over whether mental illness breads violence or not (Mcginty et al. 2014). Some studies indicate that people struggling with depression are more likely to commit suicide and if a gun is available then chances of a gun related death will increase (Mcginty et al. 2014). There hasn’t been a strong policy implemented to gun control involving mental health. However gun restriction policies have been centered on people with dangerous behaviors such as offenders who have been convicted of domestic violence and offenders who are convicted of felonies (Mcginty et al. 2014). RAT suggests that a crime will be committed if there is little preventing the crime from happening. Gun control policies have been structured around hindering easy access to guns. Other polici es incorporated in to gun laws require owners to register their weapons and do not allow gun owners to just sell their guns to just anyone (Mcginty et al. 2014). There has been more structure implemented into the process. Clodfelter, Turner, Hartman, and Kuhns (2010) discuss sexual harassment on college campuses. According to Clodfelter et al. (2010) routine activities theory also includes personal victimization (such as sexual harassment) because crimes against individuals also includes a target,Show MoreRelatedEssay about America Needs More Gun Control Laws1397 Words   |  6 Pagesacross the United States. Nevertheless, in today’s society, gun violence is sparking debate and controversy on how to control gun violence. Throughout the country, thousands of laws and regulations have been created to aid in the control of guns. Through much study, the gun laws and regulations in place have very little effect on the number of gun related injuries and deaths. 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Essay on The Life-Span Developmental Approach to Counseling

The life-span development approach addresses the basic nature versus nurture debate by allowing for both. Just as our physicals selves are determined by both genetics and lifestyle, so are our emotional selves. As a Licensed Professional Counselor, I plan to consider life-span development to specialize in counseling a specific type of person with hopes of becoming well-versed, and therefore more helpful, in the types of experiences that group faces. Personality can be better understood if it is examined developmentally (Santrock, 2006, p. 45). Considering cognitive, biological, and socioemotional development throughout life will provide context, guideposts, and reasonable expectations for counselors. Life-span development theories also†¦show more content†¦The second cognitive theory emphasizes social and cultural environment. Vygotskys theory points to our relationships with others as the definitions of ourselves (Nicholl, 1998, par. 13). Two other theories of early development link environment with biology. Sandra Scarr, a behavior geneticist, theorizes that heredity and environment are correlated. Author Judith Harris theorizes that heredity and peer environment are the sole factors in a persons development, and therefore parents have no affect on the development of their children. The life-span perspective should probably make room for familial environment: family of origin and family of choice. Assuming Harris is correct, a life-span approach to counseling will allow that children and spouses do influence an adults development. Environmental factors on a micro level feature the nuclear family; macro-level factors can include social mores, regional cultural norms, and even national identity. Santrock points out that each of these factors influences our understanding of children and adults and informs our decisions as a society about how they should be treated (2006, p. 9). 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